Annals of Epidemiology
Volume 19, Issue 7 , Pages 468-483 , July 2009

Vitamin D for Cancer Prevention: Global Perspective

  • Cedric F. Garland, Dr PH, FACE

      Affiliations

    • Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
    • Moores University of California San Diego Cancer Center, La Jolla
  • ,
  • Edward D. Gorham, MPH, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
    • Moores University of California San Diego Cancer Center, La Jolla
    • Naval Health Research Center, San Diego
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to: Edward D. Gorham, Naval Health Research Center, PO Box 85122, San Diego, CA 92186-5122. Tel.: 619-524-9876.
  • ,
  • Sharif B. Mohr, MPH

      Affiliations

    • Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
    • Moores University of California San Diego Cancer Center, La Jolla
  • ,
  • Frank C. Garland, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
    • Moores University of California San Diego Cancer Center, La Jolla
    • Naval Health Research Center, San Diego

Received 14 August 2008 ,Accepted 15 March 2009.

References 

  1. Garland C, Comstock G, Garland F, Helsing K, Shaw E, Gorham E. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and colon cancer: eight-year prospective study. Lancet. 1989;2:1176–1178
  2. Tangrea J, Helzlsouer K, Pietinen P, Taylor P, Hollis B, Virtamo J, et al. Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites and the subsequent risk of colon and rectal cancer in Finnish men. Cancer Causes Control. 1997;8:615–625
  3. Feskanich D, Ma J, Fuchs CS, Kirkner GJ, Hankinson SE, Hollis BW, et al. Plasma vitamin D metabolites and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13:1502–1508
  4. Lowe LC, Guy M, Mansi JL, Peckitt C, Bliss J, Wilson RG, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxy vitamin D concentrations, vitamin D receptor genotype and breast cancer risk in a UK Caucasian population. Eur J Cancer. 2005;41:1164–1169
  5. Bertone-Johnson ER, Chen WY, Holick MF, Hollis BW, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:1991–1997
  6. Tworoger SS, Lee IM, Buring JE, Rosner B, Hollis BW, Hankinson SE. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and risk of incident ovarian cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:783–788
  7. Abbas S, Linseisen J, Slanger T, Kropp S, Mutschelknauss EJ, Flesch-Janys D, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of post-menopausal breast cancer—results of a large case-control study. Carcinogenesis. 2008;29:93–99
  8. Ahonen MH, Tenkanen L, Teppo L, Hakama M, Tuohimaa P. Prostate cancer risk and prediagnostic serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels (Finland). Cancer Causes Control. 2000;11:847–852
  9. Corder EH, Guess HA, Hulka BS, Friedman GD, Sadler M, Vollmer RT, et al. Vitamin D and prostate cancer: a prediagnostic study with stored sera. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993;2:467–472
  10. Li H, Stampfer MJ, Hollis JB, Mucci LA, Gaziano JM, Hunter D, et al. A prospective study of plasma vitamin D metabolites, vitamin D receptor polymorphisms, and prostate cancer. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e103
  11. Braun MM, Helzlsouer KJ, Hollis BW, Comstock GW. Prostate cancer and prediagnostic levels of serum vitamin D metabolites (Maryland, United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6:235–239
  12. Nomura A, Stemmermann G, Lee J, Kolonel L, Chen T, Turner A, et al. Serum vitamin D metabolite levels and the subsequent development of prostate cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1998;9:425–432
  13. Hiatt R, Krieger N, Lobaugh B, Drezner M, Vogelman J, Orentreich N. Prediagnostic serum vitamin D and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:461–463
  14. Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Hollis BW, Willett WC, Giovannucci E. Plasma 1,25-dihydroxy- and 25-hydroxyvitamin D and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2004;15:255–265
  15. Freedman DM, Chang SC, Falk RT, Purdue MP, Huang WY, McCarty CA, et al. Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites and breast cancer risk in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:889–894
  16. Ahn J, Peters U, Albanes D, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Chatterjee N, et al. Serum vitamin D concentration and prostate cancer risk: a nested case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100:796–804
  17. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Hayes RB, Horst RL, Anderson KE, Hollis BW, Silverman DT. Serum vitamin D and risk of pancreatic cancer in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian screening trial. Cancer Res. 2009;69:1439–1447Epub 2009 Feb 10
  18. Braun MM, Helzlsouer KJ, Hollis BW, Comstock GW. Colon cancer and serum vitamin D metabolite levels 10-17 years prior to diagnosis. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;142:608–611
  19. Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O. Dietary vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: a 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet. 1985;1:307–309
  20. Martinez ME, Giovannucci EL, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Hunter DJ, Speizer FE, et al. Calcium, vitamin D, and the occurrence of colorectal cancer among women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1375–1382
  21. Kearney J, Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Calcium, vitamin D, and dairy foods and the occurrence of colon cancer in men. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;143:907–917
  22. Pritchard RS, Baron JA, Gerhardsson de Verdier M. Dietary calcium, vitamin D, and the risk of colorectal cancer in Stockholm, Sweden. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996;5:897–900
  23. La Vecchia C, Braga C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Russo A, Conti E, et al. Intake of selected micronutrients and risk of colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer. 1997;73:525–530
  24. John E, Schwartz G, Dreon D, Koo J. Vitamin D and breast cancer risk: The NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971-1975 to 1992. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:399–406
  25. Salazar-Martinez E, Lazcano-Ponce EC, Gonzalez Lira-Lira G, Escudero-De los Rios P, Hernandez-Avila M. Nutritional determinants of epithelial ovarian cancer risk: a case-control study in Mexico. Oncology. 2002;63:151–157
  26. Salazar-Martinez E, Lazcano-Ponce E, Sanchez-Zamorano LM, Gonzalez-Lira G, Escudero DE Los Rios P, Hernandez-Avila M. Dietary factors and endometrial cancer risk. Results of a case-control study in Mexico. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2005;15:938–945
  27. Lin J, Manson JE, Lee IM, Cook NR, Buring JE, Zhang SM. Intakes of calcium and vitamin D and breast cancer risk in women. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1050–1059
  28. John EM, Schwartz GG, Koo J, Van Den Berg D, Ingles SA. Sun exposure, vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms, and risk of advanced prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 2005;65:5470–5479
  29. John EM, Koo J, Schwartz GG. Sun exposure and prostate cancer risk: evidence for a protective effect of early-life exposure. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:1283–1286
  30. Abe E, Miyaura C, Sakagami H, Takeda M, Konno K, Yamazaki T, et al. Differentiation of mouse myeloid leukemia cells induced by 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1981;78:4990–4994
  31. Abe J, Moriya Y, Saito M, Sugawara Y, Suda T, Nishii Y. Modulation of cell growth, differentiation, and production of interleukin-3 by 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the murine myelomonocytic leukemia cell line WEHI-3. Cancer Res. 1986;46:6316–6321
  32. Miyaura C, Abe E, Kuribayashi T, Tanaka H, Konno K, Nishii Y, et al. 1 alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces differentiation of human myeloid leukemia cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1981;102:937–943
  33. Mangelsdorf DJ, Koeffler HP, Donaldson CA, Pike JW, Haussler MR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-induced differentiation in a human promyelocytic leukemia cell line (HL-60): receptor-mediated maturation to macrophage-like cells. J Cell Biol. 1984;98:391–398
  34. Colston KW, Berger U, Coombes RC. Possible role for vitamin D in controlling breast cancer cell proliferation. Lancet. 1989;1:188–191
  35. Frappart L, Falette N, Lefebre M, Bremond A, Vauzelle J, Saez S. In vitro study of the effects of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the morphology of human breast cancer cell line BT-20. Differentiation. 1989;40:63–69
  36. Tanaka Y, Bush K, Klauck T, Higgins P. Enhancement of butyrate-induced differentiation of HT-29 human colon carcinoma cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Biochem Pharmacol. 1989;38:3859–3865
  37. Thomas MG, Tebbutt S, Williamson RC. Vitamin D and its metabolites inhibit cell proliferation in human rectal mucosa and a colon cancer cell line. Gut. 1992;33:1660–1663
  38. Chen TC, Persons K, Liu WW, Chen ML, Holick MF. The antiproliferative and differentiative activities of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 are potentiated by epidermal growth factor and attenuated by insulin in cultured human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 1995;104:113–117
  39. Chen ML, Heinrich G, Ohyama YI, Okuda K, Omdahl JL, Chen TC, et al. Expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-24-hydroxylase mRNA in cultured human keratinocytes. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1994;207:57–61
  40. Cross HS, Bareis P, Hofer H, Bischof MG, Bajna E, Kriwanek S, et al. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D(3)-1alpha-hydroxylase and vitamin D receptor gene expression in human colonic mucosa is elevated during early cancerogenesis. Steroids. 2001;66:287–292
  41. Goodwin P, Ennis M, Pritchard K, Koo J, Hood N, Lunenfeld S, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is common at breast cancer diagnosis and is associated with a significantly higher risk of distant recurrence and death in a prospective cohort study of T1-3, N0-1, M0 BC. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(Suppl):Abstract 511
  42. Ng K, Meyerhardt JA, Wu K, Feskanich D, Hollis BW, Giovannucci EL, et al. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and survival in patients with colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:2984–2991
  43. Porojnicu AC, Dahlback A, Moan J. Sun exposure and cancer survival in Norway: changes in the risk of death with season of diagnosis and latitude. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2008;624:43–54
  44. Robsahm TE, Tretli S, Dahlback A, Moan J. Vitamin D3 from sunlight may improve the prognosis of breast-, colon- and prostate cancer (Norway). Cancer Causes Control. 2004;15:149–158
  45. Porojnicu AC, Robsahm TE, Dahlback A, Berg JP, Christiani D, Bruland OS, et al. Seasonal and geographical variations in lung cancer prognosis in Norway. Does Vitamin D from the sun play a role?. Lung Cancer. 2007;55:263–270
  46. Stryd RP, Gilbertson TJ, Brunden MN. A seasonal variation study of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 serum levels in normal humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1979;48:771–775
  47. Tretli S, Hernes E, Berg J, Hestvik U, Robsahm T. Association between serum 25(OH)D and death from prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 2009;100:450–454
  48. Eisman J, Barkla D, Tutton P. Suppression of in vivo growth of human cancer [colon cancer and melanoma] solid tumor xenografts by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Cancer Res. 1987;47:21–25
  49. Brenner B, Russell N, Albrecht S, Davies R. The effect of dietary vitamin D3 on the intracellular calcium gradient in mammalian colonic crypts. Cancer Lett. 1998;12:43–53
  50. Schwartz GG, Wang MH, Zang M, Singh RK, Siegal GP. 1 alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol) inhibits the invasiveness of human prostate cancer cells. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:727–732
  51. Pence B, Buddingh F. Inhibition of dietary fat promoted colon carcinogenesis in rats by supplemental calcium or vitamin D3. Carcinogenesis. 1988;9:187–190
  52. Valrance ME, Brunet AH, Welsh J. Vitamin D receptor–dependent inhibition of mammary tumor growth by EB1089 and ultraviolet radiation in vivo. Endocrinology. 2007;148:4887–4894
  53. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Vieth R, Azad A, Pietinen P, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, et al. A prospective nested case-control study of vitamin d status and pancreatic cancer risk in male smokers. Cancer Res. 2006;66:10213–10219
  54. Abnet CC, Chen W, Dawsey SM, Wei WQ, Roth MJ, Liu B, et al. Serum 25(OH)-vitamin D concentration and risk of esophageal squamous dysplasia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:1889–1893
  55. Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, Assaf AR, Brunner RL, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:684–696
  56. Freedman DM, Looker AC, Chang SC, Graubard BI. Prospective study of serum vitamin D and cancer mortality in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:1594–1602
  57. Garland C, Gorham E, Mohr S, Grant W, Giovannucci E, Lipkin M, et al. Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007;103:708–711
  58. Abbas S, Chang-Claude J, Linseisen J. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and premenopausal breast cancer risk in a German case-control study. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:250–255
  59. Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Lips P, Meunier PJ, Vieth R. Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16:713–716
  60. Garland C, Grant W, Mohr S, Gorham E, Garland F. What is the dose-response relationship between vitamin D and cancer risk?. Nutr Rev. 2007;65:S91–S95
  61. Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC, Grant WB, Mohr SB, Lipkin M, et al. Optimal vitamin D status for colorectal cancer prevention: a quantitative meta analysis. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32:210–216
  62. Giovannucci E. Strengths and limitations of current epidemiologic studies: vitamin D as a modifier of colon and prostate cancer risk. Nutr Rev. 2007;65:S77–S79
  63. Lefkowitz ES, Garland CF. Sunlight, vitamin D, and ovarian cancer mortality rates in US women. Int J Epidemiol. 1994;23:1133–1136
  64. Grant WB. An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the U.S. due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation. Cancer. 2002;94:1867–1875
  65. Grant WB. Ecologic studies of solar UV-B radiation and cancer mortality rates. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2003;164:371–377
  66. Garland C, Mohr S, Gorham E, Grant W, Garland F. Role of ultraviolet B irradiance and vitamin D in prevention of ovarian cancer. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31:512–514
  67. Mohr SB, Gorham ED, Garland CF, Grant WB, Garland FC. Are low ultraviolet B and high animal protein intake associated with risk of renal cancer?. Int J Cancer. 2006;119:2705–2709
  68. Mohr S, Garland C, Gorham E, Grant W, Garland F. Is ultraviolet B irradiance inversely associated with incidence rates of endometrial cancer: an ecological study of 107 countries. Prev Med. 2007;45:327–331
  69. Grant WB, Garland CF. The association of solar ultraviolet B (UVB) with reducing risk of cancer: multifactorial ecologic analysis of geographic variation in age-adjusted cancer mortality rates. Anticancer Res. 2006;26:2687–2699
  70. Garland C, Garland F, Gorham E, Lipkin M, Newmark H, Mohr S, et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:252–261
  71. Gorham E, Garland C, Garland F. Acid haze air pollution and breast and colon cancer in 20 Canadian cities. Can J Public Health. 1989;80:96–100
  72. Garland F, Garland C, Gorham E, Young J. Geographic variation in breast cancer mortality in the United States: a hypothesis involving exposure to solar radiation. Prev Med. 1990;19:614–622
  73. Gorham E, Garland F, Garland C. Sunlight and breast cancer incidence in the USSR. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19:820–824
  74. Grant WB. An ecologic study of dietary and solar ultraviolet-B links to breast carcinoma mortality rates. Cancer. 2002;94:272–281
  75. Chlebowski R, Johnson K, Kooperberg C, Pettinger M, Wactawski-Wende J, Rohan T, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100:1581–1591Epub 2008 Nov 11
  76. Lappe JM, Travers-Gustafson D, Davies KM, Recker RR, Heaney RP. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1586–1591
  77. Giovannucci E. Calcium plus vitamin D and risk of colorectal cancer. New Engl J Med. 2006;354:2287–2288
  78. Ding EL, Mehta S, Fawzi WW, Giovannucci EL. Interaction of estrogen therapy with calcium and vitamin D supplementation on colorectal cancer risk: reanalysis of Women's Health Initiative randomized trial. Int J Cancer. 2008;122:1690–1694
  79. Mohr S, Garland C, Gorham E, Grant W, Highfill R, Garland F. Mapping vitamin D deficiency, breast cancer, and colorectal cancer. Proceedings of the ESRI International User Conference Redlands (CA): ESRI. 2005;1468
  80. Grant W, Mohr S., Recent ecological studies of ultraviolet B, vitamin D and cancer Ann Epidemiol. 2009 Mar 6 [Epub ahead of print].
  81. National Academy of Sciences–Institute of Medicine–Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride. Washington (DC): National Academy Press; 1997;
  82. Gniadecki R, Gajkowska B, Hansen M. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates the assembly of adherens junctions in keratinocytes: involvement of protein kinase C. Endocrinology. 1997;138:2241–2248
  83. Ordonez-Moran P, Larriba MJ, Palmer HG, Valero RA, Barbachano A, Dunach M, et al. RhoA-ROCK and p38MAPK-MSK1 mediate vitamin D effects on gene expression, phenotype, and Wnt pathway in colon cancer cells. J Cell Biol. 2008;183:697–710
  84. Johansen C, Iversen L, Ryborg A, Kragballe K. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induced differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes is accompanied by a PKC-independent regulation of AP-1 DNA binding activity. J Invest Dermatol. 2000;114:1174–1179
  85. Lamprecht SA, Lipkin M. Cellular mechanisms of calcium and vitamin D in the inhibition of colorectal carcinogenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001;952:73–87
  86. Jensen SS, Madsen MW, Lukas J, Binderup L, Bartek J. Inhibitory effects of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) on the G(1)-S phase-controlling machinery. Mol Endocrinol. 2001;15:1370–1380
  87. Welsh J. Induction of apoptosis in breast cancer cells in response to vitamin D and antiestrogens. Biochem Cell Biol. 1994;72:537–545
  88. Welsh J, VanWeelden K, Flanagan L, Byrne I, Nolan E, Narvaez CJ. The role of vitamin D3 and antiestrogens in modulating apoptosis of breast cancer cells and tumors. Subcell Biochem. 1998;30:245–270
  89. Mathiasen IS, Lademann U, Jaattela M. Apoptosis induced by vitamin D compounds in breast cancer cells is inhibited by Bcl-2 but does not involve known caspases or p53. Cancer Res. 1999;59:4848–4856
  90. Majewski S, Skopinska M, Marczak M, Szmurlo A, Bollag W, Jablonska S. Vitamin D3 is a potent inhibitor of tumor cell-induced angiogenesis. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc. 1996;1:97–101
  91. Pendas-Franco N, Garcia JM, Pena C, Valle N, Palmer HG, Heinaniemi M, et al. DICKKOPF-4 is induced by TCF/beta-catenin and upregulated in human colon cancer, promotes tumour cell invasion and angiogenesis and is repressed by 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Oncogene. 2008;27:4467–4477
  92. Mantell DJ, Owens PE, Bundred NJ, Mawer EB, Canfield AE. 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Circ Res. 2000;87:214–220
  93. Ougolkov AV, Billadeau DD. Targeting GSK-3: a promising approach for cancer therapy?. Future Oncol. 2006;2:91–100
  94. Pendas-Franco N, Aguilera O, Pereira F, Gonzalez-Sancho JM, Munoz A, Vitamin D. Wnt/beta-catenin pathway in colon cancer: role and regulation of DICKKOPF genes. Anticancer Res. 2008;28:2613–2623
  95. Pendas-Franco N, Gonzalez-Sancho JM, Suarez Y, Aguilera O, Steinmeyer A, Gamallo C, et al. Vitamin D regulates the phenotype of human breast cancer cells. Differentiation. 2007;75:193–207
  96. Vilenchik MM, Knudson AG. Radiation dose-rate effects, endogenous DNA damage, and signaling resonance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:17874–17879
  97. Cairns J. Somatic stem cells and the kinetics of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99:10567–10570
  98. Jones S, Chen WD, Parmigiani G, Diehl F, Beerenwinkel N, Antal T, et al. Comparative lesion sequencing provides insights into tumor evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:4283–4288
  99. Hay ED. An overview of epithelio-mesenchymal transformation. Acta Anat. 1995;154:8–20
  100. Pearson GW, Hunter T. Real-time imaging reveals that noninvasive mammary epithelial acini can contain motile cells. J Cell Biol. 2007;179:1555–1567
  101. Gumbiner BM. Cell adhesion: the molecular basis of tissue architecture and morphogenesis. Cell. 1996;84:345–357
  102. Gradstein F, Ogg J, Smith A. A geologic time scale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004;
  103. Lopez J, Percharde M, Coley HM, Webb A, Crook T. The context and potential of epigenetics in oncology. Br J Cancer. 2009;100:571–577
  104. Land RB. Genetics and reproduction. In:  Austin CR,  Short RV editor. Reproduction in mammals: reproductive fitness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1985;3
  105. Dawkins R. The selfish gene. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006;
  106. Armitage P, Doll R. The two-stage theory of carcinogenesis in relation to the age distribution of human cancer. Br J Cancer. 1954;11:161
  107. Ruotsalainen H, Sipila L, Vapola M, Sormunen R, Salo AM, Uitto L, et al. Glycosylation catalyzed by lysyl hydroxylase 3 is essential for basement membranes. J Cell Sci. 2006;119:625–635
  108. Porojnicu AC, Lagunova Z, Robsahm TE, Berg JP, Dahlback A, Moan J. Changes in risk of death from breast cancer with season and latitude: sun exposure and breast cancer survival in Norway. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2007;102:323–328
  109. Moan J, Porojnicu AC, Robsahm TE, Dahlback A, Juzeniene A, Tretli S, et al. Solar radiation, vitamin D and survival rate of colon cancer in Norway. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2005;78:189–193
  110. Lagunova Z, Porojnicu AC, Dahlback A, Berg JP, Beer TM, Moan J. Prostate cancer survival is dependent on season of diagnosis. Prostate. 2007;67:1362–1370
  111. Armenian HK. Incubation periods of cancer: old and new. J Chronic Dis. 1987;40(Suppl 2):9S–15S
  112. Pitelka DR, Taggart BN, Hamamoto ST. Effects of extracellular calcium depletion on membrane topography and occluding junctions of mammary epithelial cells in culture. J Cell Biol. 1983;96:613–624
  113. Contreras RG, Miller JH, Zamora M, Gonzalez-Mariscal L, Cereijido M. Interaction of calcium with plasma membrane of epithelial (MDCK) cells during junction formation. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:C313–C318
  114. Whelan J, McEntee MF. Dietary (n-6) PUFA and intestinal tumorigenesis. J Nutr. 2004;134(12 Suppl):3421S–3426S
  115. Raimondi F, Santoro P, Barone MV, Pappacoda S, Barretta ML, Nanayakkara M, et al. Bile acids modulate tight junction structure and barrier function of Caco-2 monolayers via EGFR activation. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;294:G906–G913
  116. Debruyne PR, Bruyneel EA, Li X, Zimber A, Gespach C, Mareel MM. The role of bile acids in carcinogenesis. Mutat Res. 2001;480-481:359–369
  117. Lipkin M, Newmark H. Effect of added dietary calcium on colonic epithelial-cell proliferation in subjects at high risk for familial colonic cancer. N  Engl J Med. 1985;313:1381–1384
  118. Newmark HL, Wargovich MJ, Bruce WR. Colon cancer and dietary fat, phosphate, and calcium: a hypothesis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1984;72:1323–1325
  119. Murillo G, Matusiak D, Benya RV, Mehta RG. Chemopreventive efficacy of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in colon cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007;103:763–767
  120. Vantieghem K, Overbergh L, Carmeliet G, De Haes P, Bouillon R, Segaert S. UVB-induced 1,25(OH)2D3 production and vitamin D activity in intestinal CaCo-2 cells and in THP-1 macrophages pretreated with a sterol Delta7-reductase inhibitor. J Cell Biochem. 2006;99:229–240
  121. Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Grant WB, Garland FC. Could ultraviolet B irradiance and vitamin D be associated with lower incidence rates of lung cancer?. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008;62:69–74
  122. Negri E, La Vecchia C. Epidemiology and prevention of bladder cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2001;10:7–14
  123. Broe KE, Chen TC, Weinberg J, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Holick MF, Kiel DP. A higher dose of vitamin D reduces the risk of falls in nursing home residents: a randomized, multiple-dose study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55:234–239
  124. Talwar SA, Aloia JF, Pollack S, Yeh JK. Dose response to vitamin D supplementation among postmenopausal African American women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:1657–1662
  125. Aloia JF, Talwar SA, Pollack S, Yeh J. A randomized controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation in African American women. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1618–1623
  126. Wicklow BA, Taback SP. Feasibility of a type 1 diabetes primary prevention trial using 2000 IU vitamin D3 in infants from the general population with increased HLA-associated risk. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1079:310–312
  127. Saadi HF, Dawodu A, Afandi BO, Zayed R, Benedict S, Nagelkerke N. Efficacy of daily and monthly high-dose calciferol in vitamin D-deficient nulliparous and lactating women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1565–1571
  128. Basile LA, Taylor SN, Wagner CL, Horst RL, Hollis BW. The effect of high-dose vitamin D supplementation on serum vitamin D levels and milk calcium concentration in lactating women and their infants. Breastfeed Med. 2006;1:27–35
  129. Kislal FM, Dilmen U. Effect of different doses of vitamin D on osteocalcin and deoxypyridinoline in preterm infants. Pediatr Int. 2008;50:204–207
  130. Hathcock JN, Shao A, Vieth R, Heaney R. Risk assessment for vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:6–18
  131. Vieth R. Vitamin D and Cancer Mini-Symposium: The Risk of Additional Vitamin D. Ann Epidemiol. 2009 Apr 11. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: 19364661.
  132. Vieth R. Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:842–856
  133. Vieth R, Chan PC, MacFarlane GD. Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:288–294
  134. Heaney RP, Davies KM, Chen TC, Holick MF, Barger-Lux MJ. Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:204–210
  135. Vieth R. Critique of the consideration for establishing the for vitamin D tolerable intake: critical need for revision. J Nutr. 2006;136:1117–1122
  136. Armas LA, Hollis BW, Heaney RP. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:5387–5891
  137. Scragg R, Jackson R, Holdaway I, Lim T, Beaglehole R. Myocardial infarction is inversely associated with plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels: a community-based study. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19:559–563
  138. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1174–1180
  139. Hypponen E, Laara E, Reunanen A, Jarvelin MR, Virtanen SM. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet. 2001;358:1500–1503
  140. Mohr S, Garland C, Gorham E, Garland F. The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide. Diabetologia. 2008;51:1391–1398
  141. Goldberg P, Fleming MC, Picard EH. Multiple sclerosis: decreased relapse rate through dietary supplementation with calcium, magnesium and vitamin D. Med Hypotheses. 1986 Oct;21(2):193–200. PMID: 3537648.
  142. Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA. 2006;296:2832–2838
  143. Holick MF, Chen TC. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1080S–1086S
  144. Kakarala RR, Chandana SR, Harris SS, Kocharla LP, Dvorin E. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in uninsured women. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:1180–1183

PII: S1047-2797(09)00105-7

doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.03.021

Annals of Epidemiology
Volume 19, Issue 7 , Pages 468-483 , July 2009